First Roman emperor
Augustus (Octavian)
Life
63 BCE – 14 CE
Julius Caesar's posthumously adopted son, he defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE and turned the republic into an empire while claiming to restore it. Herod built cities in his honor, and Philo describes him as an ideal ruler.
What the sources say
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5 statements
Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemaic ruler, hoped to revive her kingdom alongside Mark Antony, her Roman lover. In 31 BCE Octavian, adopted posthumously by Julius Caesar, defeated them both and added the title of pharaoh to his powers. The book's timeline records the conquest of Egypt and the end of the Ptolemies in 30 BCE.
The Roman republic was an oligarchy centered on the Senate, a council of elders that advised and filled offices. Octavian posed as the restorer of that order, but removed awkward senators and installed allies; the docile Senate gave him titles (Imperator, Augustus) and command of every legion and governor. The republic survived only as a façade.
Herod invested in Roman friendship: he founded Caesarea and other cities in Augustus's honor and met him on several occasions. In return for the peace he secured, with troops that mixed Romans, Gauls and Germans, he gained land and prestige. He also kept the priesthood on a short leash, installing a friend as high priest, and likewise the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem.
After Herod died, three sons shared out the kingdom. Archelaus received Judea, Samaria and Idumea and ruled from 4 BCE to 6 CE; Herod Antipas got Galilee and Perea, to the north, from 4 BCE to 39 CE; Herod Philip got the Golan, in the far north, from 4 BCE to 33 or 34 CE. Archelaus governed so badly that Augustus exiled him to Gaul; his brothers did better.
For Philo, Augustus was the model sovereign: he brought peace, united the world, civilized the barbarians and put an end to piracy; Caligula, by contrast, was dreadful, but in his view most successors acted with benevolence toward the Jews. Archaeology shows what prompted this judgment: aqueducts in Jerusalem and Caesarea, better roads, streets and ports.